Digital Topographic survey

What is a Total Station? 

A Total Station is a modern electronic digital surveying instrument. With its help, almost all types of surveying tasks can be performed. The results of the readings taken by it are obtained automatically.”

What are the benefits of Total Station?

The key advantage of a Total Station is that once it is set up, it can automatically measure all the data from any station within its line of sight with high accuracy and precision. The Total Station is an advanced electronic device used in surveying and mapping that integrates the functionality of a theodolite for measuring angles and an electronic distance metre (EDM) for measuring distances. Here are the key benefits of using a Total Station:

1. Multiple Functions in One Instrument:

A Total Station combines the functions of distance measurement, angle measurement, and data collection in one device, making it a versatile tool for surveyors.

2. High Accuracy:

Total Stations offer precise measurements of both angles and distances, often with an accuracy of millimetres. This is crucial for tasks requiring high precision, such as land surveying, construction, and engineering projects.

3. Digital Data Collection:

The instrument digitally collects and stores data, which can be transferred to computers for further processing. This reduces human error associated with manual data entry and ensures better accuracy.

4. Faster Data Collection:

Total Stations are much faster than traditional surveying methods. With automated features, they can quickly measure and record data, speeding up the surveying process.

5. Easy Data Transfer:

Data recorded by the Total Station can be easily transferred to computers or other digital devices. This simplifies the process of data analysis and map creation.

6. Long-Range Measurements:

Total Stations are capable of measuring long distances accurately, making them ideal for large-scale projects like roadways, bridges, and large construction sites.

7. Automatic Target Recognition:

Many Total Stations feature automatic target recognition, which enables the device to automatically locate and measure the target. This reduces manual efforts and enhances efficiency.

8. Ease of Use:

Modern Total Stations are user-friendly, often featuring intuitive interfaces that allow surveyors to perform complex measurements with minimal training.

9. Integration with GPS:

Some Total Stations can integrate with GPS systems for real-time positioning, enabling surveyors to combine traditional survey techniques with satellite data for enhanced accuracy.

10. Efficient in Large Projects:

The Total Station’s ability to cover wide areas efficiently makes it suitable for use in large projects such as highways, land subdivision, and urban planning.

These benefits make the Total Station an indispensable tool in various surveying, construction, and civil engineering applications, helping professionals complete their work with accuracy, speed, and efficiency.

What is meant by a Digital Level?

A digital level is an advanced levelling instrument made using modern electronic technology. It can automatically take readings from any station using a special type of staff through an electronic process. It operates with the help of a rechargeable battery and is used in all types of precise levelling tasks.

Topographic Survey is a survey process that collects detailed information about the natural and artificial features of the land surface. Through this survey, elements such as land elevation, slopes, hills, rivers, vegetation, roads, and buildings are identified. Topographic surveys are generally used for creating land maps and for project planning or construction work.used for creating land maps and for project planning or construction work.

Key Objectives of a Topographic Survey:

Identify Natural Features: Identify natural features such as land slopes, elevations, low areas, rivers, canals, and wetlands.

Collect Artificial Features: Determine the locations of man-made structures such as roads, buildings, bridges, canals, and other artificial installations.

Create Maps and Designs: Assist in creating land maps and providing accurate planning and designs for various infrastructure projects.

Infrastructure Development: Provide essential information for road construction, bridge building, drainage systems, and other infrastructural development projects.

Land Use Planning: Assess the suitability of land for agriculture, construction, or other uses.

Benefits of Topographic Survey:

Accurate Mapping: The maps created through topographic surveys accurately represent the actual positions and features of the land.

Useful for Construction Projects: Understanding land features is crucial before constructing buildings, roads, bridges, or other infrastructure. Topographic surveys assist in this process.

Climate and Drainage Planning: They help assess drainage systems or flood risks by considering the effects of land slopes and water flow.

Environmental Assessment: Topographic surveys play a significant role in evaluating environmental impacts, such as determining forest boundaries or water bodies.

Applications:

Topographic surveys are typically used for large projects, such as road construction, land development, dam building, or canal excavation. They are also widely utilized in urban planning, agricultural development, and environmental research

What is meant by a benchmark?

A benchmark refers to a specific reference point whose elevation or RL (Reduced Level) is known. These are established in important locations. The digital topographic survey is initiated based on these RLs to determine the elevation of the land.

Benchmark in surveying:

In surveying, a benchmark refers to a fixed point on the ground with a known elevation that is used as a reference for measuring heights. Surveyors collect elevation data from this point to determine the elevation of other points.

For example: A benchmark could be a metal or concrete mark affixed to a stone, indicating the precise elevation at that location.

How many types of Benchmarks are there and what are they?
There are four types of benchmarks:
i. GTS Benchmark
ii. Permanent Benchmark
iii. Temporary Benchmark
iv. Arbitrary Benchmark

 Write the full form

H.F.L = Highest Flood Level

B.M= Bench Mark

F.L-Formation Level

M.S.L Mean Sea Level

G.T.S =Great Trigonometrical Survey

R.L = Reduced Level

T.B.M= Temporary Bench Mark 

 Describe the Different Type of Projects Such As:

(a) Irrigation Project (b) Hydrographic project (c) Sewer pipe line project

(d) Tunnel Project

Below is a description of the following:

(a) Irrigation Project

 The survey work involved in the irrigation canal project includes the following types of surveys:

(i) Reconnaissance survey,
(ii) Preliminary survey,
(iii) Detailed survey,
(iv) Construction survey.

Description of Reconnaissance Survey
This survey is conducted rapidly along the proposed route across the entire area. The survey is performed quickly along the proposed alignment using lightweight instruments such as a prismatic compass, tape, and hand level. After completing this type of survey, the engineer must provide the following information in the form of an investigation report:

(i) Geomorphology of the project area.
(ii) Potential alignments.
(iii) Important locations, towns, rivers, hills, etc.
(iv) Soil and drainage conditions.
(v) Maximum flood level.
(vi) Availability of labour and construction materials.
(vii) Land value.
(viii) Time required for construction work.
(ix) Areas of high and low land.
(x) General slope of hilly areas.

The essential information that must be collected regarding the geomorphology along the alignment includes:
(i) Direction of river flow.
(ii) Water surface level.
(iii) Slope of the waterway.
(iv) Quantity of soil to be excavated.
(v) Cost of soil filling.
(vi) Number of bridges, etc.

The Preliminary Survey is a type of survey conducted in the early stages of a project to gather basic information about the site. The purpose of this survey is to collect data on the general characteristics, size, and environmental conditions of the project area, which will aid in the planning and design of the project.

Some characteristics of a preliminary survey:

• Providing an overview of the project area: It offers an understanding of the general layout and conditions of the project area.
• Collecting basic data: Geological and environmental information, such as land slope, water flow, soil type, and rainfall, are gathered.
• Data for design and planning: The information from the preliminary survey is crucial for the initial design and planning of the project.

Based on this survey, the feasibility of the project is determined, and the need for a detailed survey in the next phase is assessed. Geospatial aspects are determined from the contour map of the area, and land and water quality are tested in the laboratory. Rainfall, gauge, and discharge records are obtained from the hydrological department. Information about potential crops and their water requirements is sourced from the agricultural department.

After collecting all the information, a draft project report is prepared. Economic aspects are then examined, and the Cost-Benefit ratio is calculated.

A Detailed Survey is an accurate and comprehensive observational survey conducted to gather all the necessary information for the final design and construction of a project. This survey pays special attention to every detail, feature, and potential issue within the project area.

Description of Construction Survey

In this type of survey, the project is set out in detail in the field. The following tasks are conducted in this survey:

(i) All stakes along the alignment are checked, and if any stake is missing, it is reinstated using information from the plan and field data. The Reduced Levels (RL) of all stakes are verified, and additional benchmarks are established.
(ii) The positions of bore pits, culverts, weirs, etc., are marked on the ground.
(iii) Stakes are driven along the slope to mark the slope.
(iv) The positions of horizontal and vertical curves are established.
(v) The measurements of the prepared subgrade are checked using templates.
(vi) Sounding and bearing measurements are taken for important structures.
(vii) The river is surveyed carefully, and the waterway measurements for the bridge are determined with caution.
(viii) All completed work measurements are recorded in the Measurement Book. During the project’s progress, the accounts of materials and the number of workers are regularly noted for running bill payments.

How is Digital Topographic Survey Conducted?

In this regard, to conduct land surveys accurately using digital methods, Bangladesh plans to utilise technologies such as Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), fourth-generation survey drones or UAVs, Ground Control Stations, as well as Global Positioning System (GPS), Electronic Total Stations (ETS), data recorders, plotters, and other technologies for land surveying.

A Digital Topographic Survey is a modern surveying technique that utilises advanced technology and software to analyse and map the features of a land area. This method allows for the detailed collection of information about the terrain, which is crucial for project planning and design. Here’s an overview of how a digital topographic survey is conducted:

1. Initial Preparation:

• Site Selection: Identify the specific area for the survey and gather necessary permissions and background information.
• Equipment Setup: Prepare the required digital tools, such as Total Stations, GPS units, laser scanners, and computer software.

2. Data Collection:

• GPS and Total Station: Use GPS and Total Stations to accurately determine positions. This helps in measuring the land’s elevation, slopes, and other features with precision.
• Laser Scanning: Employ laser scanners to create a 3D model of the terrain, providing highly accurate data and the ability to cover large areas quickly.

3. Data Processing:

• Data Analysis: Analyse the collected data using specialised software. This aids in reviewing the land’s features, boundaries, and other important information.
• Map Creation: After processing, various types of topographic maps are generated, such as contour maps, topographic maps, and 3D models.

4. Report Preparation:

• Project Report: Prepare a detailed report at the end of the survey, including the survey results, maps, and other critical information. This report is essential for project planning and decision-making.

5. Data Preservation:

• Data Storage: Safely store all digital data to ensure it can be referenced in the future.

Benefits:

• Accuracy: Digital topographic surveys provide highly precise information.
• Speed: The process of data collection and analysis is completed rapidly.
• Convenience: Data can be easily stored and shared for collaborative use.

Applications:

Digital topographic surveys are commonly used in various fields, including:

• Civil Engineering: For the design and construction of roads, bridges, and buildings.
• Urban Planning: To develop city layouts and zoning regulations.
• Agricultural Development: For land assessment and crop planning.
• Environmental Studies: To evaluate ecosystems and manage natural resources.

Conclusion:

Overall, a Digital Topographic Survey is an essential tool in modern engineering and construction projects. It supports accurate planning and effective implementation by providing detailed insights into the land’s features and conditions.

Why Should Digital Topographic Survey Be Conducted?

No architect begins work without survey drawings. The digital method of land surveying is known as a digital survey. A digital survey allows for accurate measurements of land, ensuring that the measurements and angles are precise, which greatly reduces the likelihood of errors. Additionally, the layout for houses or buildings can be easily established at the beginning of construction using this survey method. Digital surveys also help determine the elevation of the land. 

The term “survey” refers to a survey. This survey method makes it very easy to obtain land measurements using various digital instruments. In the past, surveys were conducted primarily using chains and tapes, which made it difficult to obtain accurate measurements of land elevation, angles, and boundaries. 

With a digital survey, levelling measurements of the land can be obtained, which is crucial for land filling. It can also easily calculate how much soil or sand will be needed for land filling. Without a digital survey, designing the foundation of a house at a construction site is not possible. Digital surveys are essential for the design of any type of structure, including residential buildings, commercial buildings, schools and colleges, mosques and temples, hospitals, shopping complexes, bridges and culverts, roads and highways, railways, airports, and power plants.

Benefits and Importance of Digital Topographic Survey

A digital survey accurately determines the exact location of a piece of land. It identifies the north-south orientation of the land, as well as the measurements of the land and its surrounding areas, including essential road measurements. Additionally, the locations of any existing houses, trees, or other features on the land are recorded. If there are any elevations or depressions on the land, referred to as contours, this information is also obtained through the digital survey. This is especially crucial for larger plots of land or areas with depressions and hills.

Before constructing any structure, a digital survey must be conducted. By planning the structure according to the survey report, layout issues can be avoided. Manual surveys can lead to errors due to the curvature of the land. A digital survey is performed using a total station, which ensures that all features inside and outside the land are documented, such as roads, electric poles, lamp posts, trees, buildings, semi-permanent structures, tin sheds, drains, spot levels, ponds, low-lying areas, elevated land, canals, rivers, culverts, and the quantity of land, among others.

Purpose of Digital Surveying
The primary purpose of conducting this survey is to accurately measure land. This is especially important for plots that are not perfectly rectangular, as measuring them manually can lead to inaccurate results or become overly complicated. In such cases, this task is performed using a Total Station or Theodolite. Many of us may not realise that accurately determining land measurements before any construction or installation is crucial. This process is known as land surveying or property boundary line surveying, and it involves creating designs for the identified land.

Currently, what we refer to as digital surveying is conducted using a Total Station.

The purpose of digital surveying is to collect and analyse information for various needs, which aids in project planning, design, and implementation. Below are some key objectives of digital surveying:

1. Accurate Data Collection:
   Digital surveying allows for the precise collection of geographical, land feature, and other information, which forms the basis of the project.
2. Time Efficiency:
   This process is quick and effective, saving time and reducing the duration of the survey.
3. Precision:
   The use of digital technology enables the acquisition of accurate and precise information, which is essential for construction and project planning.
4. Data Analysis:
   Collected data can be analysed using advanced software, helping to identify issues and aid in decision-making.
5. Planning and Design:
   The information from digital surveys assists in planning and designing projects, providing accurate and effective solutions.
6. Environmental Assessment:
   The impacts of natural and environmental features can be evaluated, which helps ensure sustainable development.
7. Risk and Challenge Assessment:
   Potential risks and challenges can be identified through surveys, which is helpful for ensuring project success.
8. Resource Management:
   Information is collected for the effective management of land and other natural resources, facilitating better decision-making.
9. Local and National Development:
   Digital surveys provide fundamental information for local and national development, which is crucial for development planning.

Conclusion:

The objective of digital surveying is to collect, analyse, and utilise accurate and timely information, playing a vital role in the success and advancement of projects.

Introduction of Digital Topographic Survey in Bangladesh

The introduction of digital topographic survey in Bangladesh is being considered an important step for the country’s development and infrastructure projects. Through the use of digital technology, the effectiveness and accuracy of topographic surveys in Bangladesh have increased. Some key aspects of this introduction are outlined below:

1. Technological Advancement:
   The use of modern technology allows digital topographic surveys to be conducted quickly and accurately. This includes the use of GPS, laser scanning, and drone technology.
2. Improvement in Project Planning:
   Digital topographic surveys provide accurate and detailed information, which assists in the planning and implementation of infrastructure, roads, and other projects.
3. Environmental Assessment:
   Digital surveys play a crucial role in evaluating the environmental impact of projects. They help protect natural resources and the environment.
4. Time and Cost Savings:
   The use of digital technology significantly reduces the time and cost of surveys, making it beneficial for long-term projects.
5. Support from Government and Private Institutions:
   Cooperation between government and private institutions has led to the expansion of digital topographic survey activities. Such surveys have become essential for various projects.
6. Education and Training:
   Special training programs have been established for conducting digital topographic surveys, ensuring the proper use of technology.
7. Local Development:
   It provides accurate information for local development projects, which aids in enhancing local infrastructure.

Conclusion:

The introduction of digital topographic surveys in Bangladesh is extremely important for the country’s development and infrastructure projects. It helps ensure effective planning, construction, and environmental protection based on accurate information.

Geospatial Maps Characteristics

1. Spatial Information: Geospatial maps accurately represent geographical data, including location, shape, distance, and layout.
2. Multiple Layers of Information: They can present various layers of information, such as land use types, population density, and natural resources.
3. Data Analysis: Geospatial maps facilitate the analysis of complex data, aiding in informed decision-making.
4. Visual Presentation: Information is presented visually, making it easier for users to understand and interpret.
5. Interactivity: Many modern geospatial maps are interactive, allowing users to explore and analyse different layers of information dynamically.
6. Geographic Accuracy: Accuracy in geographical representation is crucial, ensuring the reliability of the data presented.
7. Technological Support: The creation and analysis of geospatial maps leverage modern technologies, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and various software tools.
8. Internal Characteristics of Construction: They utilise various symbols, markers, and legends to convey information effectively and help users interpret the data correctly.

Reference Objects for Topographic Survey

Reference objects are essential in topographic surveys for establishing accurate locations, elevations, and features on the ground. They help ensure the precision and reliability of survey data. Below are some common reference objects used in topographic surveys:

1. Benchmarks: These are permanent points with a known elevation above a specific datum (like sea level). Benchmarks are critical for determining relative heights and are usually marked on maps.
2. Ground Control Points (GCPs): These are precisely surveyed points on the ground that serve as references for georeferencing aerial images and ensuring accuracy in measurements.
3. Landmarks: Recognizable and stable features such as churches, tall buildings, or natural formations (like mountains) that can be used as reference points during the survey.
4. Survey Monuments: Physical markers (like metal rods or concrete blocks) installed at specific locations, which serve as fixed points for measurement.
5. GPS Points: Locations determined using Global Positioning System technology, which provide precise geographic coordinates for survey reference.
6. Height Reference Points: Specific points where the elevation is known, often used for establishing vertical control in a survey.
7. Surveying Stakes: Temporary markers placed on the ground to indicate specific locations or boundaries during the survey process.
8. Topographic Features: Natural or artificial features, such as rivers, roads, or fences, that can be used as reference points in the survey.

Conclusion

Using reference objects in topographic surveys is crucial for obtaining accurate measurements and reliable data. These objects help define the physical space being surveyed and provide a basis for mapping and planning. Properly established reference points enhance the overall quality and effectiveness of the survey.

Use of Geo-Maps The use of geo-stationary maps is highly effective for site design and selection in any engineering project, such as railways, highways, irrigation, water supply, drainage, reservoirs, etc. Therefore, it is essential in all these areas. This map is very important for geologists and industrialists. For military commanders, especially during wartime, this map is very helpful for environmental research and development. In Bangladesh, this map is prepared by the Survey of Bangladesh.

Digital Land Survey (Topographic Survey) refers to the process of collecting and mapping the features and contours of a particular piece of land using digital technologies. Topographic surveys provide detailed information about the terrain, including both natural and man-made features such as hills, valleys, rivers, roads, and buildings. The primary objective of this type of survey is to represent the three-dimensional features of the land surface.

Key Features of Digital Topographic Land Survey:

1. Elevation and Contour Mapping: It provides detailed information about the elevation of the land, which helps in creating contour maps to understand the slope and terrain.
2. Natural and Man-Made Features: The survey captures features like trees, rivers, mountains, buildings, roads, and other infrastructure, giving a complete overview of the land’s geography.
3. Digital Mapping: Data from the survey is stored digitally, enabling easy access, analysis, and sharing for various projects. This can be visualised in 2D and 3D models for better understanding.
4. Geospatial Accuracy: With the use of technologies like GPS, drones, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), digital topographic surveys provide highly accurate measurements, minimising errors common in traditional methods.

Technologies Used:

1. GPS and GNSS: For precise geographic positioning.
2. Drones and Aerial Photography: Capture aerial views and detailed imaging for large land areas.
3. LiDAR: A laser scanning technology that helps in capturing elevation data and mapping surface features accurately.
4. Total Station: A device used to measure distances, angles, and coordinates in surveying.

Applications of Topographic Surveys:

1. Construction Planning: For designing and planning roads, bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure projects. Knowing the land’s terrain helps engineers adjust the design accordingly.
2. Land Development: Provides information for urban planning, site selection, and landscaping, ensuring that developments are suitable for the terrain.
3. Environmental Management: Helps in flood risk assessment, water resource management, and environmental conservation by analysing terrain patterns and features.
4. Mining and Geological Studies: Used in mining to assess the surface terrain and calculate the volume of materials that can be extracted.
5. Agriculture: Topographic surveys assist in designing irrigation systems and understanding soil erosion patterns.

Benefits of Digital Topographic Survey:

1. Improved Accuracy: Advanced technologies ensure highly accurate data, reducing the risk of costly errors in planning and development projects.
2. Time and Cost Efficient: Digital surveys are faster to conduct, and the data can be easily processed and shared, reducing the overall time and cost involved in traditional surveys.
3. Comprehensive Data: It provides detailed and multi-dimensional information, helping stakeholders make informed decisions for large-scale projects.
4. Easy Data Storage and Access: Since the data is digital, it is easy to store, retrieve, update, and integrate with other geospatial systems.

In summary, a Digital Topographic Survey is a powerful tool that enables precise mapping of land features and is used in a wide range of industries, from construction and land development to environmental management and agriculture. The digital nature of this survey makes it highly efficient, accurate, and versatile

Approved Scale of Geospatial Maps
In geological surveys, the recommended scale limits for map creation are: 1 centimetre represents 2.5 kilometres (RF = 1 / 250,000) and 1 centimetre represents 0.25 kilometres (RF = 1 / 25,000).

How Topographic Surveys Are Conducted

A topographic survey is a systematic process that determines the characteristics of the land surface, such as elevation, natural and artificial features, and land shape. The following steps are followed to complete it:

1. Planning and Preparation

• Site Selection: A specific area is selected for the survey.
• Defining Data Collection Objectives: The purpose and objectives of the survey are established.
• Equipment Preparation: Necessary equipment for the survey, such as GPS, total stations, sighting levels, and drones, are prepared.

2. Data Collection

• Determining Location Using GPS: GPS is used to collect geospatial information, which helps identify accurate locations.
• Measurement: The elevation and distance of various points are measured using total stations or laser scanners.
• Photography and Drone Use: Drones are used to capture aerial images of the area, which aids in accurate data collection.

3. Data Analysis

• Data Processing: The collected data is processed using software, which involves analysing data quality and checking for errors.
• Map Creation: A topographic map is created using the processed data, illustrating the land’s elevation, slopes, and features.

4. Report Preparation

• Presenting Results: The survey results are presented in the form of a report, which includes the survey’s objectives, methods, and findings.
• Distribution of Geo-Maps and Maps: The created maps and data are distributed to the relevant authorities and clients.

5. Feedback and Corrections

• Collecting Feedback: Feedback is gathered from clients or relevant parties.
• Correction Work: Data or maps are revised as needed.

In this way, a topographic survey is a precise and planned process that displays an accurate representation of the land through the collection and analysis of correct information.

• The Survey Process Includes
  • ·         A 1-foot contour topographic survey may require shots taken at intervals of 20-30 feet. Additionally, shots should also be taken along all break lines. Similarly, a break line is a point where the contour suddenly changes, such as behind a curve or at the centerline of a road.
  • ·         An aerial topographic survey is conducted at a specific distance above the ground from an aeroplane or helicopter. As a result, some aerial photographs are taken from there. The aerial photographs are then examined together to create a stereo pair, allowing the mapper to “visualise” the ground surface. Two overlapping aerial images allow us to perceive depth in the same way we use both our eyes.
  • ·         The same point can be viewed from two different vantage points. From this, our brain can perceive the relative distance from our eyes. With only one photograph or one open eye, depth perception is not possible.
  • ·         A conventional survey typically occurs when contour intervals and spot elevations need to be accurate.
  • ·         The aerial mapping process is generally more limited in terms of accuracy regarding both horizontal and vertical positions of surface points.
  • ·         A 1-foot contour is the limit for aerial work, and spot elevations can be accurate only up to one and a half feet. Therefore, this type of survey is not acceptable for designing things like sanitary sewers, which may require accuracy within ±0.02.
  • ·         Although this provides a somewhat simplified explanation of the methodology for conducting a topographic survey, the purpose of this explanation is merely to give a brief overview of what a complete topographic survey looks like.

The output of a topographic survey is particularly

The output of a topographic survey can include various types of information and data, which are extremely important for engineering, planning, and construction. The common outputs of a topographic survey are:

Topographic Map: A detailed map that illustrates the land’s elevation, slopes, rivers, mountains, roads, and other geographical features.

Contour Lines: These are used to indicate the elevation of the land, connecting points of equal height.

Spot Elevations: The heights of specific points are measured and marked on the map.

Geospatial Information: Information related to the location and characteristics of various geographical and natural elements.

Database: A structured database of the data collected from the survey, used for further analysis.

Technical Report: A detailed report that includes the survey methods, the equipment used, and the analysis of the collected data.

Aerial Photographs: If an aerial survey is conducted, photographs taken from the air may also be included.

3D Model: A three-dimensional model created based on elevation and geographical features.

These outputs are used in engineering projects, land development, urban planning, environmental research, and many other fields.

Fieldwork for Topographic Survey
Surveys help accurately determine terrestrial or three-dimensional spatial positions. As a result, the survey involves the summation of points, distances, and angles among them. Surveyors, of course, use levelling instruments such as theodolites, dumpy levels, and clinometers.

Topographic Survey: A Brief History

Topographic survey, or geomorphological survey, has been practised by humans since ancient times. Below is a brief history of its evolution:

1. Ancient Beginnings

• Egyptian Era: In ancient Egypt, surveyors used hygroscopic to accurately measure land for determining land ownership and construction projects.
• Greek and Roman Civilizations: The Greeks and Romans relied on geometry and trigonometry to calculate terrain and create maps.

2. The Middle Ages

• Map Making: During the Middle Ages, map-making became an important craft in Europe and other regions. Accurate maps were necessary for navigation and trading.
• Official Surveys: The need arose to keep records of land and conduct surveys for various states and empires.

3. The Modern Era

• Technological Advances: In the 17th century, the use of advanced tools such as the theodolite and level increased the accuracy of surveys.
• Industrial Revolution: During the Industrial Revolution, large-scale Topographic surveys were required for major projects.

4. 20th Century

• Aerial Surveys: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, aerial surveys began using planes and helicopters, which facilitated the rapid surveying of large areas.
• Digital Technology: After the 1990s, advancements in digital technology, GPS, and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) further improved the Topographic survey process.

5. Present Day

• Data Analysis: Modern technology has made it easier to analyse and present survey data.
• Increased Global Use: The importance of Topographic surveys is growing in various fields such as urban planning, environmental research, and land development.

The history of Topographic surveys is intertwined with the development of human civilization and continues to evolve through technological advancements. Today, it has become an essential tool for engineering, planning, and environmental research.